Istanbul was the capital of two of the greatest empires in history: the Roman (Byzantine) Empire and the Ottoman Empire.
In 324 CE, Emperor Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, Constantinople became the heart of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. By 361, it was the world’s most populous city, with around 300,000 inhabitants. During the Ottoman era in 1600, its population reached 400,000–700,000, making it the second-largest city in the world after Beijing.
Neolithic Istanbul (c. 6500 BCE)
In 2008, excavations for the Marmaray tunnel uncovered Neolithic settlements, revealing that Istanbul was inhabited 3,500 years earlier than previously believed. Remarkably, during this period, the Bosphorus did not yet exist as a waterway—people could walk between Asia and Europe.
Bronze Age Discoveries in Beşiktaş (c. 3500 BCE)
In 2017, archaeological work for a subway station in Beşiktaş uncovered a burial site dated to the early Bronze Age (3500 BCE). The site includes over 70 kurgan (mound) burials alongside urn burials—similar to practices seen in Etruscan Italy and Eurasian Steppe cultures.
Terracotta figurines found at the site show stylistic links to the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture of Eastern Europe. These discoveries suggest deep prehistoric connections between Anatolia, the Black Sea region, and the steppes—raising new questions about migration and cultural exchange in ancient times.
Phoenician and Thracian Presence
The area around Yoros Castle (modern Anadolu Kavağı) was once home to a Phoenician trade colony. Thracian tribes also inhabited parts of the region intermittently.
Byzantium: Greek Colony (675–196 BCE)
Greek colonists from Megara first settled Chalcedon (modern Kadıköy) in 675 BCE. Sixteen years later, Byzas founded Byzantium on the European shore, drawn by the natural harbor of the Golden Horn. The Serpent Column in today’s Hippodrome dates from this Greek era (479 BCE).
Constantinople: Capital of the Byzantine Empire (324–1453)
After unifying the Roman Empire, Constantine the Great established Constantinople as its new capital. As the first Christian Roman emperor, he built the Great Palace and the Church of St. Irene. For over a thousand years, the city thrived as the center of Byzantine civilization—wealthy, powerful, and culturally rich.
Ottoman Istanbul (1453–1923)
In 1453, Sultan Mehmed II (“the Conqueror”) captured Constantinople, marking a pivotal moment in world history. Istanbul became the capital of the Ottoman Empire and a global center of politics, trade, and culture. Architectural masterpieces from this era include Topkapı Palace, the Süleymaniye and Blue Mosques, Dolmabahçe Palace, the Grand Bazaar, and the Rumeli and Anadolu fortresses.
Modern Istanbul (1923–Present)
After the founding of the Turkish Republic in 1923, the capital moved to Ankara. Istanbul evolved into Turkey’s cultural and economic hub, home to institutions like the Istanbul State Opera, Istanbul Modern, and historic bridges spanning the Bosphorus.